Growth in the informal tourism sector in Sri Lanka Essay Example

Development in the casual the travel industry segment in Sri Lanka Essay Example Development in the casual the travel industry segment in Sri Lanka Essay Development in the casual the travel industry part in Sri Lanka Essay Sir Lankan Tourism Stronger Growth in the Informal Sector? The new type of sightseers The Flash - Packers Sacral Malthusian There is no uncertainty that the general vacationer appearances to Sir Lankan has given YOU development in the previous hardly any years. Practically all lodgings are returning solid income, inhabitance and productivity figures. Anyway there are a few thunderings from the bigger built up inns that the presentation has been not too stupendous when contrasted with earlier years. From a general nation point of view it is in reality very simple to check reality behind these worries. To do this, one has just to concentrate in more prominent detail the development In the enormous and little foundations independently as reflected In the Foreign Guest Nights and distributed by Sir Lankan Tourism Development Authority (SALAD) Itself. Remote Guest Nights (FOG) are recorded straightforwardly from Individual inn foundations, which demonstrate the genuine number of 1 evenings spent in a specific lodging by outsiders. (There is additionally independent information on Local Guest Nights). The SALAD likewise distributes a further sub-division of Figs into two classes, called FOG in Graded Establishments and Supplementary Establishments. Evaluated Foundations are sorted by SALAD as traditional star class lodgings, while Supplementary Establishments are the littler visitor houses and home stay units (the purported Informal division), enlisted with SALAD. The SALAD additionally tracks the normal number of days a visitor has spent In the nation, which has been In the request for 9. 8 10 days for each violators. Partitioning the Figs by the length of remain, would then uncover the specific number of outsiders who have remained in the lodgings and different foundations. Consequently it's anything but a significant exercise to determine independently the real number of Derived from SALAD measurements : Investigation The complete number of sightseers as recorded by the Emigration office and distributed by the SALAD for 2011 was 855,975, while the genuine visitors as controlled by FOG insights of the SALAD is 725,889, which is a 16 % spillage factor, of voyagers of this spillage could likewise be the vacationers who remain in the enormous number of unregistered little Bed and Breakfast units that have jumped up in all well known traveler 2 urban communities on the full circle circuit, whose measurements are not up to speed in the SALAD records. Additionally noteworthy from the investigation is that there was a development of 21% in all the reviewed foundations, while the (casual) beneficial division developed by an awesome This shows plainly that the casual area has developed a lot quicker than the conventional part for 2011 (The breakdown of 2012 measurements giving FOG is as yet not accessible with the SALAD). The Future So what of things to come? Would it be advisable for us to all race to set up little B units and stop the advancement of huge scope ordinary inns? Should ordinary lodgings drop their rates definitely, to attempt to pull in the lower end advertise? These are all automatic reactions. What Sir Lankan the travel industry fundamentally needs today is a grievous way to deal with development. 3 The Informal Sector and the New Breed of Tourist Certainly, the development in the casual area is exceptionally fascinating. It is fuelled by solid online life, systems administration and web stages, along with the way that voyaging and investigating Sir Lankan today is extremely protected and very plausible to do on ones own, instead of rely upon guided visits as a couple of years prior. Consequently, it is nothing unexpected that another section of experience looking for visitors are fuelling this development, spending less on their inn using straightforward financial plan on settlement, and spending more n investigation and experience. This new portion of voyagers are called Flashback, a mix of blaze (as in extravagant), with hiking, used to allude to a rich explorer. Blackjacking has a relationship of increasingly extra cash while voyaging, and has been characterized basically as exploring with a greater spending plan. It incorporates the utilization of a rucksack or other baggage that is effectively conveyed for significant distances or extensive stretches of time; the utilization of open vehicle; modest housing; a more drawn out term to the excursion when contrasted and ordinary get-aways; and an enthusiasm for meeting local people also s seeing the sights. It is commonly connected with youthful grown-ups, who by and large have This isn't generally an awful circumstance. As a matter of fact, this market portion ought to be fortified as it is a lively main impetus, which carries introduction and spotlight to the nation. It is correctly because of this development, that Sir Lankan has discovered kindness as Lonely Planets No. 1 goal for 2013. It is this portion of the market that developed some 80%, and which is as yet dependent on manuals, for example, Lonely Planet, and GAPS Map interfaces. This development in the casual part items is quick finding the regular cost section. Serving of mixed greens measurements show close upon 15,000 rooms in the ordinary lodging 4 classification while the strengthening (casual) classification rooms have ascended to 11,600. On the off chance that the unregistered casual class, which is conceivably very enormous, is added to this, it will be clear that the casual classification of rooms effectively out-numbers the conventional part. This is to be sure an eye opener, where conceivably later on, the casual the travel industry will have a more prominent state in setting the course of the travel industry of the nation. Ordinary Hotels So what has befallen the traditional lodging section? They have extremely since quite a while ago became complacent, upgrading their exhibition on the post war astounding development in numbers and incomes (room rates). No cautious update of item and administration contributions has been done on a significant scale, to include esteem and more noteworthy experience, which is by all accounts what the market is requesting. The ordinary lodgings with huge number of rooms offering the regular old eatery alternatives and offices are lost in the group. There are no genuine remarkable selling recommendations or separating perspectives. On the further finish of the scale, the better quality boutique inns offering lavish, justified and specially manufactured items and administration contributions are prevailing with regards to keeping up high development. End Sir Lankan the travel industry in this way, needs to make a stride in reverse, and get opportunity, to seriously investigate the new market powers that are affecting the business, and causing perspective changes in the manner in which we have to get things done. New worth included items and administration contributions are required, breaking out of the traditional shackles to help Sir Lankan the travel industry develop in a feasible way, and to turn into a develop the travel industry goal. All photos by the Author 5

The feminization of the Community Correction Work force by Jo G Case Study

The feminization of the Community Correction Work power by Jo G. Holland - Case Study Example The exploration issue of this examination article is whether there is balance in the network amendments work power. The investigation utilized various inquiries to encourage a methodical enquiry into the previously mentioned explore issue. The principal question addresses the jobs ladies have been given while taking part in the adjustments workforce. The subsequent inquiry enquires into the obstructions that ladies have confronted while seeking after professions in the rectifications work power. The third inquiry investigates how ladies counter hindrances while occupied with the remedial work power. Emotionally supportive networks that give chances to the improvement of professions are the object of the fourth inquiry. The keep going inquiry is on the open doors that the future holds for ladies to develop inside the network amendments work power (Holland, 2008). This study’s information examination utilized mean and rates. For instance, the normal period of ladies working in the Virginia people group restorative workforce is 35 years. Other than age, area is another segment factor checked for in the examination remember for terms of whether urban or country. The places that the investigation considered are agent and boss probation and probation officer and that of the overseer. The investigation thought about the components of ethnicity and populace status (minority or not). This examination likewise enquired whether respondents got mentorship or not. The requirement for systems administration among the ladies working in Virginia DOC was surveyed. The investigation estimated the level of ladies who got support from other ladies while taking an interest in the restorative workforce. The examination checked for the most noteworthy places that ladies in the remedial workforce anticipated (Holland, 2008). The creator makes various ends. She presumes that the remedial work power should be extended so as to expand hierarchical procedures. The

The Honest to Goodness Truth on History Essay Topics on Benjamin Franklin

<h1> The Honest to Goodness Truth on History Essay Topics on Benjamin Franklin </h1> <p>Man isn't a thing yet an animal that must be comprehended in the extensive strategy of advancement. This piece utilizes loads of imagery when the storyteller alludes to the whistle to allude to his past and is a wonderful plot with an incredible capacity. Also, this isn't the end of the story yet. The most significant issue is that subject should have no under two substantial viewpoint.</p> <h2>The War Against History Essay Topics on Benjamin Franklin </h2> <p>As consistently, The Teacher's Corner is scanning for techniques to make your life less complex. This guidance would along these lines be useful for all perusers, allowing them to grasp Franklin-style friendliness. Speaking to his perusers, Franklin asked them to get the following couple of years or three or four releases to obviously show their help as a result of his expectation. It is difficult to make a genuine companion on the web. </p> <p>At the end of the program, five members are chosen and given seed cash chances to start another endeavor. Participation is beneath the citywide normal and a great deal of understudies miss longer than a month of school. Undergrads are our absolute first classification. Thusly, numerous understudies and representatives choose to acquire moderate article instead of composing it themselves. </p> <h2> History Essay Topics on Benjamin Franklin Secrets </h2> <p>The eighteenth century was a captivating time all around the globe. The eighteenth century is regularly refered to as the beginning of the purported present day period in theory. Without a doubt the most popular uproars ever. Irrefutably the most eminent negotiators ever. </p> <p>But recollect that the draft doesn't simply show a Word archive in which you have gathered all the data that you have been in a situation to find. It should have a thorough structure, writing references and the e ntirety of different properties of a fantastic exploration paper.</p> <p>Bear as a main priority, the point isn't to just report irregular realities and data with respect to the subject. Having a couple of point recommendations to investigate can assist you with picking topic that interests to you, bringing about a charming paper for your perusers. The clarification of results is viewed as the hardest part, be that as it may, it is in like manner the most captivating part in light of the fact that the motivation behind the entire paper is to at long last find the reasons, clarifications, causes and so on of examining an interesting examination paper theme. You may choose a measurement or statement to really assist drive with homing the estimation of your theme. </p> <p>Extract and discussion about the contentions they use. You despite everything need to create the perfect theory proclamation. You simply have two or three pages to create your contention, and along these lines you have to settle on a concentration before beginning composition. You need to begin incredible and use confirmation to help your contentions. </p> <h2> Definitions of History Essay Topics on Benjamin Franklin</h2> <p>Provided that you're ready to gracefully the data in the focuses above. Our returning clients are the best verification of the gauge and greatness of our master administrations. Ask into the terms without anyone else and ensure that sequential request is clung to. It is made out of four one of a kind segments, written in sequential request. </p> <h2> Lies You've Been Told About History Essay Topics on Benjamin Franklin </h2> <p>Along with his logical trials, Franklin turned his concentration to open help. B enjamin Franklin is certainly one of the most popular figures in American history. He was one of the establishing fathers of the United States. Franklin, 129 Franklin is a superb man but at the same time he's a simple, modest, natural man. </p> <p>Franklin, 84 The rundown of temperances and associative arrangement about approaches to ace them is among the most well known segments of the content. This collection of memoirs right up 'til the present time is among the most basic chronicled records in the US and Franklin's major scholarly work. Assess the strategy for life for the Native American. </p> <h2> Facts, Fiction and History Essay Topics on Benjamin Franklin </h2> <p>Related to the subject of time is the issue with lingering. Lingering is fundamentally progressively normal with respect to testing assignments. </p> <p>This will create a perfect examination paper that will be profoundly esteemed by your educator. At last, your work will be cleaned, and you will be ready to state your exploration paper is for all intents and purposes great. Writers make an opportunity for understudies because of the way that they compose from a recorded viewpoint and offer a visual scene of their social orders since they encountered it. </p>

Finding Scholarship Essay Topics That Are Convenient

<h1>Finding Scholarship Essay Topics That Are Convenient</h1><p>Heroes exposition subjects are the subjects of your papers. In the event that you have picked a point for your grant exposition that incorporates legends or the individuals who accomplished extraordinary things, ensure you locate the correct one to get acknowledged for your scholarship.</p><p></p><p>Writing regarding a matter which has numerous saints is a decent choice for your grant. There are grants that are explicitly for understudies who expound on legends, and there are a lot more that require the papers center around saints when all is said in done. Utilize these two choices to your advantage.</p><p></p><p>If you decide to compose on a specific legend, make a point to call attention to all the manners by which the understudy's capacities and accomplishments helped individuals. This will assist the peruser with seeing how the understudy utilizes thei r forces for good. You may even need to incorporate insights regarding how the understudy may have the option to additionally help the world after the moves they made. For instance, a dad may have lost his kid to a type of mishap, and this understudy might help other children.</p><p></p><p>If you decide to compose on legends when all is said in done, ensure you call attention to how the hero's capacities or triumphs helped other people here and there. For instance, the author may portray how the understudies of the school soccer group were motivated by the presentation of their headliner or the townspeople of the town may be roused by the saint's endeavors in securing the individuals of the town.</p><p></p><p>The grant article is a significant piece of an understudy's secondary school vocation, and the focal point of their life as they get ready for school. So ensure that the focal point of your grant exposition is profoundly centered around extraordinary accomplishments, and not really on a solitary student.</p><p></p><p>Heroes paper subjects ought to be anything but difficult to compose. Likewise with some other article, there are key thoughts that should be secured, yet the key thought isn't the focal point of the paper. Actually, so as to compose an incredible exposition, it is basic that you leave some space for the author to take other significant ideas.</p><p></p><p>Heroes paper points are something that can be hard for understudies to concoct. So ensure that you discover a legend who fits the interests of the understudy, and base your exposition around that.</p><p></p><p>When searching for grant paper subjects, understudies can likewise think about thoughts from the school's educational plan. School first year recruits can expound on how thoughts from writing, history, or science have motivated their choices for setting off for colleg e, and an understudy's class instructor can propose points that will permit understudies to talk about significant subjects.</p>

Essay Topics for 8th Graders: the Ultimate Convenience!

<h1> Essay Topics for eighth Graders: the Ultimate Convenience! </h1> <h2> Facts, Fiction and Essay Topics for eighth Graders </h2> <p>It is critical to choose an incredible point to have the option to create a fantastic paper. Understudies may need to discover progressively about the subjects as an approach to react with adequate profundity and unpredictability. </p> <p>Next, list 5-10 strategies you can by and by be unassuming. OK, presently you have the basics about how to settle on an educational article subject, we should dive into some brilliant thoughts! </p> <p>Think of how your life would vary without PCs and expound on doing it. You've been allowed to sort out an occasion which will be delighted in by everybody in your neighborhood. You've woken up in the focal point of the desert. All first-year understudies ought to get the opportunity to comprehend what school life is by dwelling in a residence. </p> <p>8th graders are basically figuring out how to find topics in writing. Depict the 1 weapon you would recommend to your military to ensure that you're satisfactorily secured. The last review should be compact with firm language.</p> <p>Pets ought to be allowed in school. Reusing ought to be required for everyone. Kids ought to be approached to understand more. Children should have the option to c ast a ballot. </p> <p>You've welcomed your two closest companions to commit the evening at your home. Guardians ought to address kids about medications at a young age. Guardians of menaces should need to pay a fine. Guardians and relatives ought not settle on clinical choices instead of specialists. </p> <p>Usually, candidates are mentioned to form an individual exposition, trailed by paper questions are known as prompts, and you have to take that. So far as formal composition, eight graders are somewhat new authors. </p> <p>Don't disregard to end your paper with an end which not just repeats your proposition. In any case, it will wrap the full paper up. You should make certain it comprises of a postulation proclamation. Regularly, it does exclude references and statements in it. In case you're in a school and wish to form a pugnacious exposition, you should choose a subject of high significance. </p> <p>Writing season is an average application exposition. Ladies should be fined each time they shout. School is for a serious extent of study. Understudies figure out how to compose adequately when they compose all the more as often as possible. </p> <p>The enormous piece of the prompts are related with the few occasions on our February Events Calendar. With an overall understudies so form an important occasion. Each American ought to figure out how to communicate in English. He ought to figure out how to communicate in Spanish. </p> <h2> What Is So Fascinating About Essay Topics for eighth Graders?</h2> <p>A parent is obligated for caring for youngsters. In the event that the theme isn't hard to investigate, at that point the child can focus on the genuine composing aptitudes. Let your child or little girl pick a fascinating subject, and train the creative cycle on the back of that enthusiasm. </p> <p>Even in case you're a solid essayist yourself, you can understand that controlling your youngsters in that method isn't easy. Inspecting each side of the issue can help your perusers structure their own sentiments. Ensure you make a solid effort to demonstrate your side of the circumstance. At the point when you have the theme, answer the inquiry and after that help your answer with at least three clarifications for why you trust it. </p> <h2> Essay Topics for eighth Graders Ideas </h2> <p>Select the time of life that you accept is ideal and form an article contending why it's the absolute best time of life. Our life is about words. Napoleon chooses to develop the windmill in any case. </p> <p>Year round school is certainly not a smart thought. The idea is to pick a side and after that demonstrate why you accept your side is appropriate. You've been welcome to a b-ball occasion which will be graced by your most loved NBA star. </p>

Things To Know About Algonquin College

<h1>Things To Know About Algonquin College</h1><p>Algonquin College is an all around regarded four-year school situated in Canada's biggest city, and they offer incredible things for the individuals who are thinking about going there. Here are a couple of things that individuals should think about this school before they settle on their choice to attend.</p><p></p><p>Algonquin College has loads of various alternatives accessible to the individuals who are keen on finding out about the school. They offer a wide range of scholastic projects, remembering majors and minors for a wide scope of subjects. These projects permit understudies to settle on an incredible decision about what they need to accomplish for their life. Understudies can decide to go to school in the humanities, science, or technology.</p><p></p><p>If you are thinking about going to school to proceed to graduate school, at that point Algonquin College is perhaps the best decision for you. They offer the advanced education in training, and numerous individuals appreciate this program since it permits them to have a solid establishment of instructing information. Understudies at Algonquin likewise have an extraordinary chance to return to class and get a graduate degree, or even a PhD.</p><p></p><p>Aside from graduate level degrees, Algonquin offers numerous different projects to their understudies. A portion of these projects incorporate a business organization course, a partner degree in music, and a four year certification in liberal arts degree in a specialized curriculum. Understudies at Algonquin can likewise decide to go to other unique courses, for example, move, music, and show. There are likewise a wide range of projects accessible to the individuals who are keen on finding out about expressions of the human experience, for example, visual expressions and theater.</p><p></p><p> Algonquin College is additionally one of the top licensed universities in the United States, so understudies will have numerous great vocation decisions accessible to them once they complete their four years at the school. Numerous individuals who are keen on turning into an educator at Algonquin College can take some school courses in math, science, and English to upgrade their odds of turning out to be ateacher. Different understudies can decide to set off for college and become a paralegal, while others can decide to set off for college and become a lawyer.</p><p></p><p>Students likewise have the choice of going to graduate school after they have moved on from school. There are various choices for graduates who need to return to class, and numerous understudies decide to go to graduate school at Algonquin College. It's significant for understudies to take as much time as necessary and ensure that they get into a program that will meet their requirements, a nd Algonquin is an incredible spot to locate the correct doctoral level college for them.</p><p></p><p>Algonquin College offers grants for understudies who need money related help. Grants for ladies and understudies with incapacities are two of the more typical grants offered at the school. Grants for understudies who are concentrating in nursing, culinary expressions, and different regions are likewise accessible, and understudies can discover what grants they meet all requirements for by taking a confirmations exposition test at the college.</p><p></p><p>Writing a school article isn't a simple assignment, yet it doesn't need to be a test. Understudies who are searching for an approach to improve their school encounters can exploit composing classes and internet composing courses that are accessible. For understudies who need to find out about Algonquin College, they can visit the school's site and become familiar with the college.< ;/p>

Strategic Leadership - Free Essay Example

Strategic leadership. This assignment critically evaluates leadership theories within a strategic framework by drawing upon literature sources and contrasting different academic perspectives. It will explore the relevance of strategic leadership within a small organization , as it appears that, from an initial review of the literature, that strategic leadership theories are aimed at large, complex, corporate organisations. Recommendations will be made as to whether or not the strategic leadership theories are of relevance to a small organisation and which theories have more relevance than others in this specific organizational context. Leadership The concept of leadership is not new and it has been suggested that it was philosophers from ancient civilisations who first started to examine the definition of leadership (Grint 2001). The oldest known military text The Art of War (circa 400 BC) states: the leader of armies is the arbiter of the peoples fate, the man on whom it depends whether the nation shall be in peace or in peril (Sun (undated)). As early as the fourth century BC Plato believed leadership and the development of leaders to be of fundamental importance (Bass 1990). However, over the last few decades the concept of leadership has been heavily studied and debated; so much so that, for the first-time reader on the subject matter, the definition leadership appears, at first sight, to be intangible. It would appear that every layperson, when asked, instinctively knows what a leader is, but when asked to describe this in detail they falter. Fielder (1987) states that there have been at least 65 definitions of leadership put forward, and Stogdill (1974) argues that there are almost as many definitions as there are commentators. Leadership has been defined by Bennis (1998) as ‘a function of knowing yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to realize your own leadership potential’. However, Heifetz argues that there is little chance of ever resolving an all-embracing definition of leadership. This view is supported by Drucker (1996) who argues that ‘the only definition of a leader is someone who has followers’ and Nanus (1997) who states that ‘leadership is like the Abominable Snowman, whose footprints are everywhere but who is nowhere to be seen’. Recent research carried out by the South West Regional Development Agency concludes that ‘Despite recognition of the importance of leadership, there remains a certain mystery as to what leadership actually is or how to define it (Bolden 2004). Everyone has their own intuitive understanding of what leadership is, based on a mixture of experience and learning, which is difficult to capture in a succinct definition. The situation appears to be far more complex than the statement by Maxwell (1998) that ‘leadership is influence nothing more, nothing lessâ₠¬â„¢ would have us believe. There does however appear to be some consensus that leadership is not management, and Zaleznik (1977) was one of the first to delineate the differences between leadership and management. He saw a leader as an artist, who uses creativity and intuition to navigate his way through chaos, whilst the manager is seen as a problem solver dependent on rationality and control. The dichotomy between leaders and managers was forcefully established by Bennis and Nanus (1985) who suggest that managers ‘do things right’ whilst leaders do ‘the right thing’. Bennis (1989) went on to draw twelve distinctions between the two groups: Managers Leaders Managers administerLeaders innovate Managers ask how and whenLeaders ask what and why Managers focus on systemsLeaders focus on people Managers do things rightLeaders do the right things Managers maintainLeaders develop Managers rely on controlLeaders inspire trust Managers have a short-term pers pectiveLeaders have a longer-term perspective Managers accept the status-quoLeaders challenge the status-quo Managers have an eye on the bottom lineLeaders have an eye on the horizon Managers imitateLeaders originate Managers emulate the classic good soldierLeaders are their own person Managers copyLeaders show originality Source: Bennis (1989) Northouse (2004) also saw a distinction between leadership and management and observed that in general terms managers concerned themselves with tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Central to most of these distinctions is an orientation towards change. This concept is well represented in the work of Kotter (1990) who concluded that ‘management is about coping with complexity’ whilst ‘leadership, by contrast, is about coping with change’. He proposed that good management brings about a degree of order and consistency to organisational processes and goals, whilst leadership is required for dynamic c hange. Strategic Leadership As with the definition of leadership, there is a similar problem when attempting to tie down precisely what strategy is. There are strongly differing opinions on most of the key issues of strategy and the disagreement runs so deep that a common definition of the term ‘strategy’ is illusive (De Wit 2004). This leads to their being little hope of ever being able to define ‘strategic leadership’. However Johnson and Scholes (2001) define strategy as ‘the direction and scope of an organisation over the long-term: which achieves advantage for the organisation through its configuration of resources within a challenging environment, to meet the needs of markets and to fulfil stakeholder expectations’. It could be argued that leadership is inherently about strategy and there is little point in using the term ‘strategic leadership’ yet Hambrick and Pettigrew (2001) note two distinctions between the terms â €˜leadership’ and ‘strategic leadership’. First, leadership theory refers to leaders at any level in the organization, whereas strategic leadership theory refers to the study of people at the top of the organization. Second, leadership research focuses particularly on the relationship between leaders and followers. Leadership Theory There are those who view leadership as the consequence of a set of traits or characteristics possessed by ‘leaders’, whilst others view leadership as a social process that emerges from group relationships. Such divergent views will always result in a difference of opinion about the nature of leadership. A number of differing theories on leadership have developed over time. Whilst early theories tend to focus upon the characteristics and behaviours of successful leaders, later theories begin to consider the role of followers and the contextual nature of leadership (Bolden et al. 003). Great Man Theories Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term man was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories Trait Theories The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life Behaviourist Theories These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behaviour are observed and categorised as styles of leadership’. This area has probably attracted most attention from practising managers Situational Leadership This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst som e situations may require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organisation Contingency Theory This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances Transactional Theory This approach emphasises the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers Transformational TheoryThe central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organisational performance Source: Adapted from Bolden et al (2003) The Trait Approach arose from the Ã¢â‚¬Ë œGreat Man’ theory as a way of identifying the key characteristics of successful leaders. It was believed that through this approach critical leadership traits could be isolated and that people with such traits could then be recruited, selected, and installed into leadership positions. This approach was common in the military and is still used as a set of criteria to select candidates for commissions (Bolden 2003). In a comprehensive study of leadership traits, Stogdill (1974) found some qualities that appeared more often than others. Stogdill’s Leadership Traits †¢Strong drive for responsibility, †¢Focus on completing the task, Vigour and persistence in pursuit of goals, †¢Venturesomeness and originality in problem-solving, †¢Drive to exercise initiative in social settings, †¢Self-confidence, †¢Sense of personal identity, †¢Willingness to accept consequences of decisions and actions, †¢Readiness to adsorb interpersonal stress , †¢Willingness to tolerate frustration and delay, †¢Ability to influence the behaviour of others, †¢Capacity to structure social systems to the purpose in hand. Source: Stogdill (1974) Despite the extensive research that has been carried out to attempt to roduce a definitive list of leadership traits, consensus has not been reached. After reviewing several studies of leadership characteristics and traits, Northouse (2004) concluded that there was no consistency in what traits were associated with great leaders. It has now been widely accepted that a definitive set of traits will never be identified (Bolden 2004). Wright (1996) has commented that researcher have ‘found no differences between leaders and followers with respect to these characteristics [traits], or even found people who possessed them were less likely to become leaders’. Another significant criticism of trait theories is that they ignore the situational context. In other words, they pres ume that the same traits would work on a battlefield and in the staff room of a school (Sadler 1997). They minimized the impact of the situation (Wright 1996). Another criticism is that theories tend to present a gender bias. When men and women are asked about each others characteristics and leadership qualities, some significant patterns emerge; both tend to have difficulties in seeing women as leaders (Rosener 1997). An alternative to the trait approach was to consider what leaders actually do, rather than their underlying characteristics. Interest in this approach largely arose from work by Douglas McGregor (1960), which proposed that management and leadership style is influenced by the persons’ assumptions about human nature (Bolden 2004). He summarised two contrasting viewpoints of managers in industry: type X Managers have a more negative viewpoint whereas type Y Managers are more positive. McGregor’s X-Y Manager Theory Theory X managers believe that: Theor y Y managers believe that: †¢The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. †¢Because of this human characteristic, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort to achieve organizational objectives. †¢The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all else. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest, and the average human being, under proper conditions, learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility. †¢People will exercise self-direction and self-control to achieve objectives to which they are committed. †¢The capacity to exercise a relatively high level of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population, and the intellec tual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized under the conditions of modern industrial life. Source: McGregor (1960) Although behavioural theories introduced the notion of different leadership styles, which was in advancement from trait theories, they have been criticised because they give little guidance as to what constitutes effective leadership behaviours in different situations. Situational leadership theories take a natural step on from behavioural and style theories, they argue that leaders must constantly evaluates the context in which they operate, depending upon such factors as the people, the task, the organisation and other environmental variables. Fiedler (1964) proposed that there is no single best way to lead; instead the leaders’ style should be selected according to the situation. He went on to distinguish between task orientated managers and relationship orientated managers and noted that they performed differently dependi ng on the incumbent situation. Hersey and Blanchard (1969) also maintained that it was not the leader style which led to effectiveness, but rather the ability of the leader to adapt the style to the needs of their followers. They argue that the development level of the subordinates has the greatest impact on which leadership style is most appropriate, and as the followers develop, the leader will need to adapt their style from directing to coaching, supporting and delegating. However, one of the difficulties of employing these types of theories is that there is a lot of evidence to suggest cultural factors influence the way that people carry out, and respond to, different leadership styles (Northhouse 2004). Some cultures are more individualistic, or value family as against bureaucratic models, or have very different expectations about how people address and talk with each other; all these factors influence the choice of style. Further criticism has been put forward by Bolman and Deal (1997) who state that some contingency theorists ‘focus mainly on the relationship between managers and immediate subordinates, and say little about issues of structure, politics or symbols’. Transactional leadership approach emphasises the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers. Transformational leadership, first put forward by Burns (1978), goes beyond transactional leadership; to him, transforming leadership ‘is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents’ (Burns, 1978). He comments further that ‘[transforming leadership] occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to highe r levels of motivation and morality’. The transformational approach has been widely embraced within all types of organisations as a way of transcending organisational and human limitations and dealing with change (Bolden 2004). It has been contrasted with the more traditional transactional leadership approach, in which the leader obtains loyalty from followers by way of a straightforward exchange of pay and security. Comparison of Transactional and Transformational Leadership Transactional LeadershipTransformational Leadership †¢Builds on man’s need to get a job done and make a living †¢Is preoccupied with power and position, politics and perks †¢Is mired in daily affairs †¢Is short-term and hard data orientated †¢Focuses on tactical issues †¢Relies on human relations to lubricate human interactions †¢Follows and fulfils role expectations by striving to work effectively within current systems †¢Supports structures and systems that reinforce the bottom line, aximise efficiency, and guarantee short-tem profits. †¢Builds on a man’s need for meaning †¢Is preoccupied with purposes and values, morals, and ethics †¢Transcends daily affairs †¢Is orientated toward long-term goals without compromising human values and principles †¢Focuses more on missions and strategies †¢Releases human potential – identifying and developing new talent †¢Designs and redesigns jobs to make them meaningful and challenging †¢Aligns internal structures and systems to reinforce overarching values and goals Source: Covey (1992) Jenkins and Ambrosini (2002) state that transformational leadership theories are well grounded in academic research, based on qualitative interviews with leaders. They go on to say that transformational leadership theories are also wide-ranging in the concept that they cover. However, Tichy and Devanna (1986) argue against this, and state that the data has been drawn from the limited subset. It has also been argued that transformational leaders are simply charismatic leaders. There are many other theories of leadership, such as charismatic leadership, servant and team leadership, and distributed leadership. Although the presence of these theories is acknowledged, every one of them warrants a stand-alone essay. Within the confines of this assignment, it is not possible to examine all of the leadership theories that have been postulated over the years while connecting them to an organizational context. Business Context While the importance of strategic leadership for business success seems to be without question, the practical application of leadership theory is less clear. The importance of strategic leadership has been explored by many sources. Hitt and Ireland (2001) states that ‘strategic leadership is a requirement of success’. Furthermore, Bennis and Nanus (1985) argue that leadership plays crucial role in the d eployment of an organisations strategic plan. Latterly Hitt and Ireland (2005) go on to say that ‘without affecting strategic leadership, the probability that a firm can achieve superior or even satisfactory performance when confronting the challenges of the global economy will be greatly reduced’. It is certainly true that there is a great deal of money being spent on management and executive education, with approximately $50 billion spent per year on leadership development alone (Raelin, 2004). In a 2003 survey the Financial Times found leading European companies to be spending on average ? 3,336 per participant per year on executive education, and of the topics offered leadership, followed by general management, were the most typical (Financial Times, 2003). The importance of strategic leadership is well documented, but a review of the text indicates that the majority of the theories appear to be aimed at large organisation. However, effective leadership is equall y critical (if not more critical) within small enterprises. O’Regan and Ghobadian (2004) state that, in terms of jobs and wealth creation, small and medium-sized enterprises make a significant contribution to national economies. While Beaver and Jennings (2001) state that leaders of small firms require specific transferable skills, directly related to entrepreneurship, professional management and leadership within the operating environment of the business. Having a well-thought-out strategy is increasingly seen as an important activity for SMEs as well as large firms (Naffziger and Mueller 1999). Many of the leadership theories seem to provide a post-hoc description of leadership qualities. They either attempt to describe what a leader is, or what he/she does rather than focus on the practicalities of leadership which can lead to improved organisational performance. Bolden (2005) states that programmes such as MBAs traditionally seek to develop a range of cognitive skil ls and capabilities but place relatively little emphasis on how these can be transferred to the workplace. He goes on to argue that ‘If the practice of leadership is considered as more than just applying a set of principles, then its development demands a more experiential dimension’ (Bolden 2005). The lack of practical focus is summarised by Gosling (2003): ‘It seems much has already been done to define what â€Å"qualities†, â€Å"competencies†, â€Å"standards† should be sought from our leaders but, as the current debate would imply, this has done little to improve the quality of our leaders and leadership other than, perhaps, for specific organisations (those who have gone through the process of developing their own framework)’. The overarching recommendation is to acknowledge the importance of strategic leadership to the progress of a small organization, and develop a leadership framework specific to the organisation. This sh ould be done with an understanding of the plethora of management theories, but must focus on practical application and business improvement. â€Å"Leadership is not taught and leadership is not learned. Leadership is learning. † (Antonacopoulou and Bento 2003). References Antonacopoulou E. P. and Bento R. E. (2003). 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